Sharks checking in to the sponge hotel: First internal use of sponges of the genus Agelas and family Irciniidae by banded sand catsharks Atelomycterus fasciatus.

Trawl surveys within and surrounding two northwestern Australian marine parks revealed banded sand catsharks Atelomycterus fasciatus (family Atelomycteridae) taking refuge within large sponges of the family Irciniidae (Demospongiae: Dictyoceratida) and the genus Agelas (Demospongiae: Agelasida: Agelasidae). Five sponges contained a total of 57 A. fasciatus, comprising both sexes and both immature and mature individuals ranging from 102 to 390 mm total length (TL). In the same surveys, only five A. fasciatus were captured unassociated with sponges, suggesting that sponges are an important microhabitat for A. fasciatus and may provide a daytime refuge from predators. A southerly range extension is also reported for this species.

Wildfires enhance phytoplankton production in tropical oceans.

Wildfire magnitude and frequency have greatly escalated on a global scale. Wildfire products rich in biogenic elements can enter the ocean through atmospheric and river inputs, but their contribution to marine phytoplankton production is poorly understood. Here, using geochemical paleo-reconstructions, a century-long relationship between wildfire magnitude and marine phytoplankton production is established in a fire-prone region of Kimberley coast, Australia. A positive correlation is identified between wildfire and phytoplankton production on a decadal scale. The importance of wildfire on marine phytoplankton production is statistically higher than that of tropical cyclones and rainfall, when strong El Niño Southern Oscillation coincides with the positive phase of Indian Ocean Dipole. Interdecadal chlorophyll-a variation along the Kimberley coast validates the spatial connection of this phenomenon. Findings from this study suggest that the role of additional nutrients from wildfires has to be considered when projecting impacts of global warming on marine phytoplankton production.

A solution for restoration of critical wetlands and waterbird habitats in coastal deltaic systems.

Loss of coastal wetland habitats has been directly linked to a decline in waterbird populations including migratory species, leading to calls to reverse this trend in part by restoring these habitats. However, distinct "sediment scarcity" has hindered coastal habitat restoration. Here, taking the Yangtze River Delta, China as an example, we put forward a feasible solution to solve the sediment shortage in habitat restoration so necessary to restore migratory waterbird numbers. Four biological indices including total wetland area, wetland vegetation area and waterbird species richness and abundance, were used to compare and assess the restorative efforts. Three solutions were adopted for the rehabilitation sites, including promoting sediment deposition and settlement through engineering intervention in Chongming Dongtan (CD) and Eastern Nanhui (EN), and using dredged sediments to nourish and create new habitats in Hengsha Eastern Shoal (HES). The mean wetland area increased 19.66 km2/yr in EN, 8.78 km2/yr in HES and 3.83 km2/yr in CD after rehabilitation. Along with the increase of wetlands and habitats, the abundance of waterbirds increased 1.3 times, 121 times and 1.5 times in EN, HES and CD, respectively. In contrast, in the site of Fengxian and Jinshan (FJ) where no any rehabilitation measure was taken after reclamation, the habitats were lost almost completely and the waterbird abundance dropped drastically. The comparison and assessment results demonstrate that proper coastal silting structures and ecological utilization of nearby dredged sediments are the feasible and effective solutions to retain sediments, restore coastal habitats and increase waterbird diversity and abundance.

Knowledge Gaps in the Biology, Ecology, and Management of the Pacific Crown-of-Thorns Sea Star Acanthaster sp. on Australia's Great Barrier Reef.

AbstractCrown-of-thorns sea stars (Acanthaster sp.) are among the most studied coral reef organisms, owing to their propensity to undergo major population irruptions, which contribute to significant coral loss and reef degradation throughout the Indo-Pacific. However, there are still important knowledge gaps pertaining to the biology, ecology, and management of Acanthaster sp. Renewed efforts to advance understanding and management of Pacific crown-of-thorns sea stars (Acanthaster sp.) on Australia's Great Barrier Reef require explicit consideration of relevant and tractable knowledge gaps. Drawing on established horizon scanning methodologies, this study identified contemporary knowledge gaps by asking active and/or established crown-of-thorns sea star researchers to pose critical research questions that they believe should be addressed to improve the understanding and management of crown-of-thorns sea stars on the Great Barrier Reef. A total of 38 participants proposed 246 independent research questions, organized into 7 themes: feeding ecology, demography, distribution and abundance, predation, settlement, management, and environmental change. Questions were further assigned to 48 specific topics nested within the 7 themes. During this process, redundant questions were removed, which reduced the total number of distinct research questions to 172. Research questions posed were mostly related to themes of demography (46 questions) and management (48 questions). The dominant topics, meanwhile, were the incidence of population irruptions (16 questions), feeding ecology of larval sea stars (15 questions), effects of elevated water temperature on crown-of-thorns sea stars (13 questions), and predation on juveniles (12 questions). While the breadth of questions suggests that there is considerable research needed to improve understanding and management of crown-of-thorns sea stars on the Great Barrier Reef, the predominance of certain themes and topics suggests a major focus for new research while also providing a roadmap to guide future research efforts.

Optimal Foraging Theory Explains Feeding Preferences in the Western Pacific Crown-of-Thorns Sea Star Acanthaster sp.

AbstractThe selectivity of crown-of-thorns sea stars (Acanthaster sp.) for different coral prey types was quantified in the field and laboratory and compared with a range of nutritional and food quality parameters as well as the growth performance of sea stars fed on different types of coral. Growth rates of small juvenile Acanthaster sp. without previous exposure to coral fed for 6.6 months on 15 individual species of corals showed that the highest rates of growth were achieved on the same types of corals for which adult sea stars show the strongest preference, both in the field and in controlled aquarium conditions. Small Acanthaster sp. (ca. 20 mm, 0.5 g) fed on Acropora formosa, Stylophora pistillata, Seriatopora hystrix, and Pocillopora damicornis increased in size by an average of 9.2-10.7 mm (4.2-5.6 g) per month, compared with 0.1-0.4 mm (0.004-0.028 g) per month on coralline algae fed controls and species such as Porites lutea, Porites lichen, Lobophyllia hemprichii, and Turbinaria mesenterina. Field studies on the same reef where the parents of these juvenile sea stars were collected demonstrated a strong sequential preference for acroporid and then pocilloporid corals, with faviid, merulinid, and poritid corals selected significantly less frequently than other corals when their relative abundance was taken into account. This order of preference by adult field-collected sea stars was confirmed and exhibited even more emphatically in aquarium experiments, where the relative abundance of prey species could be controlled. The growth experiments and measurements of comparative food value between preferred and non-preferred coral prey suggest that feeding preferences in Acanthaster sp. for Acropora and pocilloporids arose consistent with optimal foraging theory and evolved in response to this species being able to feed successfully and efficiently. The high abundance and, therefore, encounter rate of Acropora and pocilloporids is not considered to be an important factor in the evolution of feeding preferences, although relative abundance of alternative prey does affect selectivity. Individual growth and population fitness and reproductive output of Acanthaster sp. will be enhanced by preferential feeding on acroporid and pocilloporid corals, reinforcing the importance of optimal foraging theory in the evolution of feeding preferences.

Role of C4 carbon fixation in Ulva prolifera, the macroalga responsible for the world's largest green tides.

Most marine algae preferentially assimilate CO2 via the Calvin-Benson Cycle (C3) and catalyze HCO3- dehydration via carbonic anhydrase (CA) as a CO2-compensatory mechanism, but certain species utilize the Hatch-Slack Cycle (C4) to enhance photosynthesis. The occurrence and importance of the C4 pathway remains uncertain, however. Here, we demonstrate that carbon fixation in Ulva prolifera, a species responsible for massive green tides, involves a combination of C3 and C4 pathways, and a CA-supported HCO3- mechanism. Analysis of CA and key C3 and C4 enzymes, and subsequent analysis of δ13C photosynthetic products showed that the species assimilates CO2 predominately via the C3 pathway, uses HCO3- via the CA mechanism at low CO2 levels, and takes advantage of high irradiance using the C4 pathway. This active and multi-faceted carbon acquisition strategy is advantageous for the formation of massive blooms, as thick floating mats are subject to intense surface irradiance and CO2 limitation.

A new species of Philocheras (Decapoda: Caridea: Crangonidae) from Western Australia, with a key to all species of this genus worldwide.

One new species and three new distribution records for the family Crangonidae (Crustacea: Decapoda) are reported from Western Australia. A new species, Philocheras gardenensis sp. nov. is described and illustrated based on specimens collected from the Western Australia. The new species closely resembles Philocheras fasciatus (Risso, 1816), but can be distinguished easily by the absence of lobe-like folds on either side of the middle line of the carapace, the presence of a lateral carina extending from the branchiostegal spine, the longer middorsal carina and distolateral tooth of the antennal scale. A key for the genus Philocheras is provided, including currently, a total of 58 species and subspecies reported worldwide. Range extensions of three Crangonid shrimps are reported within Australia, and they are Philocheras obliquus (Fulton Grant, 1902), Pontocaris arafurae (Bruce, 1988) and Vercoia gibbosa Baker, 1904.

Paleoecological evidence for decadal increase in phytoplankton biomass off northwestern Australia in response to climate change.

Ocean warming can modify the phytoplankton biomass on decadal scales. Significant increases in sea surface temperature (SST) and rainfall in the northwest of Australia over recent decades are attributed to climate change. Here, we used four biomarker proxies (TEX86 index, long-chain n-alkanes, brassicasterol, and dinosterol) to reconstruct approximately 60-year variations of SST, terrestrial input, and diatom and dinoflagellate biomass in the coastal waters of the remote Kimberley region. The results showed that the most significant increases in SST and terrestrial input occurred since 1997, accompanied by an abrupt increase in diatom and dinoflagellate biomasses. Compared with the results before 1997, the average TEX86H temperature during 1997-2011 increased approximately 1°C, rainfall increased 248.2 mm, brassicasterol and dinosterol contents increased 8.5 and 1.7 times. Principal component analysis indicated that the warming SST played a more important role in the phytoplankton increase than increased rainfall and river discharge.

Recovery of marine Conus (Mollusca: Caenogastropoda) from imposex at Rottnest Island, Western Australia, over a quarter of a century.

Imposex is a reproductive abnormality in which female snails begin to transform to males, but do not become functional. It was caused by tributyltin (TBT) used as an antifoulant in boat paints. Imposex was first recorded marine snails (Conus) (Mollusca: Caenogastropoda) at Rottnest Island, Western Australia, in January 1991, where 88% of individuals at the west end were affected. Most were at moderate Stages 3 and 4 on a scale of 0 (no affect) to 6 (death). TBT was banned on boats <25m long in late 1991 in WA. In 1996, imposex had declined to 69% of females with Stages 3 and 4 still the most common. By 2007 only 35% of females exhibited imposex; Stage 3 was the highest level recorded. TBT was below detection limits. TBT was banned on vessels >25m in September 2013. In February 2017 only 4% of Conus had imposex, at Stage 1.

Abundant box jellyfish, Chironex sp. (Cnidaria: Cubozoa: Chirodropidae), discovered at depths of over 50 m on western Australian coastal reefs.

Box jellyfish cause human fatalities and have a life cycle and habit associated with shallow waters (<5 m) in mangrove creeks, coastal beaches, embayments. In north-western Australia, tow video and epibenthic sled surveys discovered large numbers (64 in a 1500 m tow or 0.05 m(-2)) of Chironex sp. very near to the benthos (<50 cm) at depths of 39-56 m. This is the first record of a population of box jellyfish closely associated with the benthos at such depths. Chironex were not widespread, occurring only in 2 of 33 tow videos and 3 of 41 epibenthic sleds spread over 2000 km(2). All Chironex filmed or captured were on low to medium relief reefs with rich filter feeder communities. None were on soft sediment habitat despite these habitats comprising 49% of all sites. The importance of the reef habitat to Chironex remains unclear. Being associated with filter feeder communities might represent a hazard, and other studies have shown C. fleckeri avoid habitats which represent a risk of entanglement of their tentacles. Most of our observations were made during the period of lowest tidal current flow in the morning. This may represent a period favourable for active hunting for prey close to the seabed.

Abiotic factors influencing biomass accumulation of green tide causing Ulva spp. on Pyropia culture rafts in the Yellow Sea, China.

Annually recurrent green-tides in the Yellow Sea have been shown to result from direct disposal into the sea of fouling Ulva from Pyropia aquaculture. The role abiotic factors play in Ulva biomass accumulation on rafts was studied to find ways to mitigate this problem. Dissolved inorganic nitrogen (DIN) was very high at all sites, but the highest Ulva biomass was associated with the lowest DIN and anthropogenic N. Under luxuriant background nutrient conditions, variability in temperature and periods of emersion, rather than pH, light and salinity determined Ulva biomass. Two dominant species of Ulva displayed differing tolerances to temperature and desiccation which helped explain why Ulva prolifera dominates floating green-tides. Rather than trying to mitigate green-tides only by reducing nutrient pollution, an earlier harvest of Pyropia in southern Jiangsu Province especially before temperatures increase greatly above 10°C during April, could reduce the biomass of U. prolifera disposed from rafts.

Inter- and intra-annual patterns of Ulva prolifera green tides in the Yellow Sea during 2007-2009, their origin and relationship to the expansion of coastal seaweed aquaculture in China.

The large green-tide events that occurred in the Yellow Sea in 2008 (3489km(2)) and 2009 (4994km(2)) are shown to be novel events preceded only once by a much smaller event in 2007 (82km(2)). The blooms originated in the coastal area of Jiangsu province and spread north-east towards the Shandong Peninsula. The blooms grew at different rates and mesoscale variability in surface winds explained the differences in the spatial and temporal patterns of blooms in 2008 and 2009. The 2009 bloom was tracked to its origin immediately offshore of extensive intertidal flats between Yancheng and Nantong where recent rapid expansion of Porphyra aquaculture has occurred. We review published hypotheses which have been advanced to explain the occurrence of blooms and in light of our findings, we conclude that the accumulation and disposal of waste Ulva prolifera from Porphyra aquaculture rafts is the most likely cause of the blooms.

Recurrence of the world's largest green-tide in 2009 in Yellow Sea, China: Porphyra yezoensis aquaculture rafts confirmed as nursery for macroalgal blooms.

In the summer of 2008, the world's largest green-tide occurred in the Yellow Sea, China. The hypothesized cause was the expansion of Porphyra yezoensis aquaculture along the Jiangsu coastline and the re-occurrence of a green-tide in 2009 was predicted. In this study, satellite and field images showed the formation of the June 2009 green-tide which again originated from the Jiangsu coast. The responsible species, its source and biomass accumulation were studied to support the previous hypothesis. Morphological and phylogenetic analysis demonstrated the homology of Ulva prolifera in the 2008 green-tide with the U. prolifera from P. yezoensis aquaculture rafts. About 91-505kg/ha of U. prolifera was attached to the P. yezoensis aquaculture rafts and a total biomass of 4956 tonnes was estimated during the harvesting of P. yezoensis. This is sufficient to seed a bloom when they are dislodged from the rafts as a result of harvesting practices.

Jellyfish blooms in China: Dominant species, causes and consequences.

Three jellyfish species, Aurelia aurita, Cyanea nozakii and Nemopilema nomurai, form large blooms in Chinese seas. We report on the distribution and increasing incidence of jellyfish blooms and their consequences in Chinese coastal seas and analyze their relationship to anthropogenically derived changes to the environment in order to determine the possible causes. A. aurita, C. nozakii and N. nomurai form blooms in the temperate Chinese seas including the northern East China Sea, Yellow Sea and Bohai Sea. N. nomurai forms offshore blooms while the other two species bloom mainly in inshore areas. Eutrophication, overfishing, habitat modification for aquaculture and climate change are all possible contributory factors facilitating plausible mechanisms for the proliferation of jellyfish blooms. In the absence of improvement in coastal marine ecosystem health, jellyfish blooms could be sustained and may even spread from the locations in which they now occur.

World's largest macroalgal bloom caused by expansion of seaweed aquaculture in China.

In late June 2008, just weeks before the opening of the Beijing Olympics, a massive green-tide occurred covering about 600km(2) along the coast of Qingdao, host city for Olympic sailing regatta. Coastal eutrophication was quickly attributed with the blame by the international media and some scientists. However, we explored an alternative hypothesis that the cause of the green-tide was due to the rapid expansion of Porphyra yezoensis aquaculture along the coastline over 180km away from Qingdao, and oceanographic conditions which favoured rapid growth of the bloom and contributed to transport of the bloom north into the Yellow Sea and then onshore northwest to Qingdao. At its peak offshore, the bloom covered 1200km(2) and affected 40,000km(2). This is the largest green-tide ever reported, the most extensive translocation of a green-tide and the first case of expansive seaweed aquaculture leading to a green-tide. Given similar oceanographic conditions to those that occurred in 2008, these green-tides may re-occur unless mitigation measures such as those proposed here are taken.